BEESWAX

Beeswax is a naturally occurring product secreted from worker bees that has varied uses in modern day. In skincare, its function ranges from its role as an occlusive, helping to create a semi-occlusive skin barrier that minimizes transepidermal water loss; as a humectant, locking in hydration; and an emollient to soften and soothe the skin. As a natural substance, its use has been shown to help alleviate symptoms associated with common cutaneous conditions like dermatitis, psoriasis, and overgrowth of normal skin flora. In this narrative review, we aim to describe current uses of beeswax in skincare that has been published in the literature. A review of beeswax related publications was performed by searching the PubMed database studies. A total of five clinical studies were included with three studies on animals and two studies in humans. Several studies show the benefits of topical beeswax in supporting the skin barrier. Beeswax can be a low-cost, natural ingredient for use in products. Further studies with topical beeswax are warranted.

Beeswax, a complex natural secretion primarily derived from Apis mellifera and Apis cerana , has evolved from an ancient remedy into a multifunctional excipient and bioactive material in modern pharmaceutical sciences. This review evaluates its physicochemical properties, pharmaceutical applications, and emerging biomedical potential, while addressing current quality and regulatory challenges. A narrative review was conducted by analyzing literature on the chemical composition, functional properties, conventional uses, advanced drug delivery applications, pharmacological activities, and quality control of beeswax, emphasizing structural characteristics, formulation roles, and integration into innovative delivery technologies. Beeswax is a lipid-based matrix composed of over 300 constituents, including wax esters, hydrocarbons, and free fatty acids, conferring thermoplasticity, biocompatibility, and structural stability. Traditionally, it functions as a stiffening agent, viscosity modifier, and emulsion stabilizer in topical formulations, forming an occlusive barrier that enhances skin hydration. In advanced systems, it serves as a solid lipid matrix in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), microspheres, and 3D-printed tablets, enabling controlled drug release and improved bioavailability of lipophilic compounds. It also exhibits antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities, while beeswax-derived policosanols show potential cardiovascular and gastroprotective benefits. However, concerns regarding paraffin adulteration and pesticide contamination highlight the need for stringent analytical and regulatory oversight. With rigorous quality control and sustainable sourcing, beeswax remains a versatile, eco-friendly material bridging traditional medicine and advanced pharmaceutical innovation.

This study evaluated Apis mellifera brood fat extracts as a sustainable alternative to beeswax for anti-inflammatory topical delivery, including their formulation into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). Brood fat was extracted using acetone, ethyl acetate (EA), and hexane, and the resulting extracts were characterized for fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties. Safety was assessed using the hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane test and cytotoxicity testing in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed by inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) production. The most suitable extract was formulated into NLCs using sugar squalane as liquid lipid, and the effects of lipid ratio and preparation method were investigated. The results showed that the ethyl acetate extract had the highest yield. Compared with beeswax, all fat extracts exhibited a favorable oleic acid-rich fatty acid profile with comparable crystallinity and thermal behavior, while showing significantly enhanced anti-inflammatory activity ( p < 0.05). All extracts and their NLCs were non-irritating and non-cytotoxic. Ethyl acetate extract-based NLCs exhibited favorable particle sizes (72.1 ± 0.3 nm) and narrow polydispersity (0.14 ± 0.00), with high-pressure homogenization producing smaller particles compared to probe sonication without affecting IL-6 or TNF-α inhibition. Therefore, A. mellifera brood fat extract is a sustainable anti-inflammatory lipid source with strong potential as an alternative to beeswax in topical nano-formulations.

Cosmetics have been suggested as sources of exposure in patients with positive patch tests to propolis. It has also been proposed that beeswax in cosmetic products may cause allergic contact dermatitis due to contamination with propolis. To assess how often propolis is listed in cosmetics and to review evidence on the propolis-beeswax relationship, including whether residual propolis in beeswax can elicit dermatitis in propolis-sensitised individuals. Market survey of ingredient lists for 500 cosmetics and a literature review on allergy to beeswax and its association with propolis allergy. None of the 500 cosmetics contained propolis. Evidence on the propolis-beeswax relationship is inconsistent, but occasional co-reactivity is reported. Based on the available evidence, propolis is not or only rarely used in conventional cosmetics on the European market and is therefore unlikely to be a relevant exposure source for patients with positive patch tests to propolis. Reactions to beeswax in propolis-sensitised individuals from residual propolis cannot be fully excluded but appear uncommon and mainly involve allergic contact cheilitis from lip balms. Within the scope of the present data, patients with positive patch tests to propolis do not need to avoid all cosmetics containing beeswax.

This randomized controlled trial compared the effects of a barrier cream containing propolis, beeswax, queen bee larvae, and vegetable oil (barrier cream 1) with those of zinc oxide (barrier cream 2) and olive oil on the healing of mild diaper dermatitis (DD). A single-blind, parallel-group, pretest-posttest, repeated-measures randomized controlled trial was conducted. The study included infants aged 1-6 months diagnosed with mild DD, who were recruited from three family health centers and a pediatric outpatient clinic in a public hospital in a district of the Mediterranean Region of Türkiye. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance, chi-square, Bonferroni correction, and generalized estimating equations with multiple logistic regression. The mean DD severity score on days 1, 2, and 3 was lower in the barrier cream 1 group than in the barrier cream 2 and olive oil groups. The mean DD severity score on day 2 of the babies in the barrier cream 1 group was significantly lower than in the other groups (p = .012). Compared to olive oil, barrier cream 1 was 2.54 times (p = .004) more effective, and barrier cream 2 was 1.43 times more effective (p = .192) in improving DD. Barrier cream 1, a formulation containing propolis, beeswax, queen bee larvae, and vegetable oil, demonstrated superior effectiveness in treating mild DD in infants compared to barrier cream 2 and olive oil. Interventions aligned with the ABCDE model positively influenced healing outcomes and enhanced parental satisfaction.

Background/Objective : In recent years, there has been a growing public interest in natural products, including those derived from bees. While most scientific research on bee products has focused on their pharmacological properties, insufficient attention has been given to consumer knowledge, consumption habits and attitudes. The aim of this study was to estimate the popularity of use of different bee products and assess consumer knowledge about them in Lithuania. Methods : An online survey was carried out of the general adult population of Lithuania with 421 respondents included. Results : The study revealed that honey, beeswax and royal jelly were the best-known bee products, while bee venom was the least known one. Knowledge levels varied by age and occupation of respondents-older people and those working in pharmacy, healthcare, cosmetology, agriculture, beekeeping and food production showed better perception. Honey was most often used for treating colds (78.9%), prevention (78.1%) and reducing fever (65.3%). Dietary use of honey depended on demographic factors and was generally low-28.3% consumed it only a few times per year or less. For cosmetics, propolis was the most used product (34.2%). Conclusions : Older individuals and professionals in pharmacy, healthcare, cosmetology, agriculture, beekeeping and food production, demonstrated better knowledge of bee products. Although honey was rarely consumed as part of the diet, older people tended to use it more often than younger individuals. Men were more likely to use honey for treating digestive and circulatory issues and as an ingredient in food and beverages, whereas women were more inclined to use it for respiratory illnesses and cosmetic treatments.

Biomimetic nanoparticles such as cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) are widely used for the in vivo treatment of various diseases because they offer a high targeting efficiency, excellent biocompatibility, immune evasion capability, and longer circulation times. However, current noninvasive delivery strategies for CMNPs often face limitations regarding maintaining optimal coating stability and distribution efficiency. In this study, we develop a platform for the transdermal delivery of CMNPs as a noninvasive alternative to injections. Specifically, an antiaggregation transdermal delivery tool (AATDT) was developed using biocompatible beeswax and hyaluronic acid. The proposed system reduced the surface energy of the CMNPs, thus preventing aggregation in the liquid phase and promoting skin permeation via enhanced hydration effects. The CMNPs were delivered to a depth of over 500 μm into the skin tissue without aggregation or systemic toxicity. The proposed AATDT thus offers a versatile, clinically translatable strategy for enhancing the stability and delivery efficiency of CMNPs in noninvasive therapeutic applications.

Background/Objectives: Nipple trauma is one of the most common complications during breastfeeding and may lead to pain, discomfort, and the premature cessation of lactation. This systematic review aimed to synthesize and critically appraise recent evidence (2020-2026), reflecting current clinical practices and emerging interventions, for the prevention and management of nipple trauma in breastfeeding women. The primary emphasis was on pain reduction and healing with a secondary consideration of their impact on breastfeeding continuation and duration. Methods: The review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines and included a literature search in the PubMed and Scopus databases. Primary research studies published between 2020 and 2026 focusing on interventions in breastfeeding women experiencing nipple trauma or nipple pain were included. A total of 22 studies met the inclusion criteria. Results: The interventions included the topical applications of natural products such as olive oil, expressed breast milk, coconut oil, beeswax-based products, and lanolin, nipple shields, and educational interventions focusing on correct breastfeeding techniques. The findings suggest that several of these interventions may reduce nipple pain and promote the healing of nipple trauma, while breastfeeding education and professional support appear to improve breastfeeding experience and continuation. Conclusions: The heterogeneity of the included studies highlights the need for further well-designed clinical research.

Oleogels formed using natural waxes undergo a sol-gel transition as the temperature decreases. Such a transition is due to the formation of a hierarchical three-dimensional crystalline network formed by the wax crystals. The properties at the interfaces of these crystals play a crucial role in shaping the overall viscoelastic response of bulk materials. Although this transition governs their processing and functional performance, it has not been examined using critical gelation theory. In this work, we investigate the sol-gel transition in beeswax-corn oil oleogels by performing a detailed linear viscoelastic analysis. When subjected to an oscillatory shear flow field while decreasing temperature, the dynamic moduli exhibit an identical power-law dependence on frequency at a certain temperature, confirming the existence of a critical gel state. We also obtain various critical scaling relations with respect to different linear viscoelastic properties in the pre-gel and post-gel states. Remarkably, the corresponding scaling exponents satisfy the hyperscaling relations, validating the critical gelation framework. We also quantify the effects of wax concentration, which cause an increase in the fractal dimension as well as the gel strength. We believe that this study provides the first comprehensive validation of the critical gelation theory for wax-based oleogels. This work also establishes a unified linear viscoelastic description of their sol-gel transition, offering a predictive framework for formulation and processing near the gel point. Finally, we create a logical design framework for manipulating the mechanical stiffness and thermal durability of oleogels for various applications, such as shape-retaining cosmetics and spreadable food products. This is achieved by correlating the scaling behavior with the composition as well as the thermal history of the oleogels.

Frankincense (gum olibanum, Boswellia spp.) is an oleo-gum resin widely used in traditional medicine and cosmetics owing to the presence of volatile oils and pentacyclic triterpenic acids (boswellic acids) with reported anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The aim of this study was to extract and characterize oil- and water-soluble fractions of frankincense resin, evaluate their antioxidant potential, and incorporate them into a stable water-in-oil ( w/o ) nourishing/antiaging cream. Frankincense resin was ground and macerated separately in sweet almond oil and Madinah rosewater to yield oil and water infusions, respectively. Qualitative phytochemical tests and FT-IR spectroscopy were employed for the characterization of both extracts and final formulations. Antioxidant potential was assessed using the DPPH assay followed by the development of a w/o cream (beeswax:almond oil:rosewater base) using combined infusions, which was evaluated for pH, viscosity, phase separation, spreadability, and thermal stability. Phytochemical screening showed presence of triterpenoids and boswellic type functionalities predominantly in the oil infusion, whereas saponins and minor alkaloids were detected in the water infusion. In the DPPH assay, significant free radical scavenging activity was observed as sample 2 showed 71% inhibition at 343.46 ± 34.2 μg/mL. The developed cream formulation showed good physical stability, acceptable pH and shear-thinning rheology. A stable, all-natural w/o cream formulation was developed incorporating combined oil- and water-soluble frankincense infusions. Future studies are warranted to perform quantitative chemical analysis, in vitro skin permeation, and formal skin safety testing to ensure uninform active content, good bioavailability and tolerability prior to clinical studies.

In Japan, ophthalmic diseases, such as gonorrheal conjunctivitis, were widespread during the Edo period (1603-1868), leaving many patients without one or both eyes. Numerous records indicate that many professional denturists often crafted artificial eyes for such patients; however, no evidence of inserted prosthetic eyes has been found to date. The author aimed to recreate a wooden orbital epithesis using the same materials and methods as those used in the Edo period where boxwood was used for wooden plate dentures. The inner surface of the epithesis could be contaminated with mucus; therefore, raw lacquer was applied similar to that applied to Noh masks. The artificial eye was fabricated using Japanese crystal, which was used for gyokugan (inlaid crystal eyes) in Buddhist statues in Japan for 900 years. The crystal was formed and polished with whetstones, and the skin surface was painted with Japanese paints and finished with beeswax. The method of orbital epithesis fixation remains unknown, and the possibility of using an adhesive was considered. The author's initial trial indicated that a relatively realistic orbital epithesis could be recreated. Highly skillful Edo-period denturists were likely to have fabricated considerably more sophisticated artificial eyes.

Honeybee products (HBPs), including honey, bee pollen, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, beeswax, and bee brood, are increasingly used in food, nutraceutical, and cosmetic contexts. Because of their natural origin, HBPs can provoke allergic reactions ranging from localised dermatitis to life-threatening, systemic anaphylaxis. As the use of bee products for health purposes grows in apitherapy (a branch of alternative medicine), raising public awareness of their potential risks is essential. This narrative review synthesises the clinical manifestations of HBP allergy, culprit allergens present in each product, immunological mechanisms, diagnostic approaches, at-risk populations, and knowledge gaps. The analysis of the available literature suggests that, although relatively rarely, HPB may trigger allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock. The sensitisation mechanism may be associated with both primary sensitisation and cross-reactivity and can be classified into type I (IgE-mediated) and type IV (T-cell-mediated). However, bee bread appears less allergenic than other HBPs, potentially due to lactic fermentation that can degrade allergenic proteins. Severe reactions following intake of bee bread have not been reported to date. Management of HBP allergic reactions centres on avoiding the products, educating about the risks, and providing more precise product labelling, specifying the allergen content. Individuals with atopy and beekeepers are at heightened risk of developing anaphylaxis; therefore, they should be particularly aware of the potential dangerous consequences of HPB use. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms of HBP allergies and improve safety for all users.

Electroencephalography is a promising noninvasive modality for brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), yet its widespread adoption is constrained by electrode limitations: dry electrodes yield unstable signals, whereas wet electrodes require laborious setup and are ill-suited to wearable devices. Inspired by honeybees that locally heat beeswax to reversibly switch it between rigid and moldable states for comb construction, this work introduces a heat-induced viscoelasticity-switchable electrode (HIVE) that enables conformal contact on hairy scalps and user-friendly operation in wearable systems. HIVE integrates a thermoresponsive gelatin gel confined in a sponge matrix with an on-electrode microheater. Its temperature is actively modulated on demand, enabling autonomous switching between the gel and sol states. As a flowable sol, it permeates hair, conforms to the skin. At body temperature, it remains in a viscoelastic state, providing strong adhesion. Moreover, heating duration is closed-loop controlled using real-time electrode-skin impedance. In steady-state visual evoked potential paradigm, HIVE delivers high classification accuracy comparable to gold-standard wet electrodes while supporting wearable BCI devices for vision-based wheelchair navigation and high-speed text entry. By translating honeybee viscoelasticity-modulation strategy into bioelectronic interfaces, this work provides a practical solution for wearable BCI devices and a new design paradigm for conformal biointerfaces on hairy or piliferous surfaces.